Psychopathological and neuropsychological disorders associated with chronic primary visceral pain: Systematic review.

The World Health Organization (WHO), in its last review of its International Classification of Diseases, established a new classification for chronic pain. Among the principal categories, of particular interest is chronic primary pain as a new type of diagnosis in those cases in which the etiology of the disease is not clear, being termed as chronic primary visceral pain when it is situated in the thorax, abdomen, or pelvis. Due to the novelty of the term, the objective of the systematic review was to examine the psychopathological and neuropsychological disorders associated with chronic primary visceral pain. We carried out a search of the scientific literature following the PRISMA directives using the Pubmed, Medline, PsycInfo and Scopus databases. A total of 33 articles were selected after applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The analysis of the studies showed that most persons with chronic primary visceral pain suffer from at least one psychological disorder; the most prevalent being anxiety, depressive or somatoform disorders. The most frequent psychopathological symptoms are anxiety, depression and somatization. Similarly, the findings are insufficient to determine the existence of deficits in the domains of executive functioning, memory and intelligence. However, the existence of attention biases does seem to be clear. This review supposes a starting point for conceptualizing chronic primary visceral pain. It is necessary to continue further research so as to obtain a better understanding of this pathology and the disorders associated.

Youth Serial Killers: Psychological and Criminological Profiles.

Serial murder is a specific type of violent crime that falls into the crime category of multicide. According to the nomenclature of the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Violent Crime Classification Manual and Academic Researchers for the Classification of Violent Crimes, most serial killers are adults. However, serial murder is also committed by young people, although to a lesser extent. Young serial killers are a topic of relevance in areas such as psychology, criminology, and the justice system. Given that the study of the variables that could be the basis of such multicide criminality is not conclusive, the need for further research is evident. The homicides perpetrated by children and young people point to a social panorama that is alarming due to their young age. This issue is prevalent enough to conduct a review. The performed review concludes the importance of psychosocial factors to better understand the process by which children and young people commit crimes as serious as serial murders. The scope of the problem of serial murders perpetrated by minors is controversial because it often depends on how the number of real cases is counted. Although official statistics indicate the low prevalence of juvenile serial killers, childhood is a period in which antisocial behaviour can have its beginning. Some authors consider that it is not uncommon for the first murder of this type to occur in adolescence. It is important to consider psychopathy as an influential factor in the various forms of serial criminal conduct committed by children and young people. The research works consulted provide evidence of the special relevance of psychopathy in the generation of serious juvenile delinquency.

Differences in Executive Functions in Minors Suffering Physical Abuse and Neglect.

This research analyzes the executive functions in minors between 7 and 16 years of age who have suffered physical abuse and neglect, as well as minors in residential care centers with other measures of protection. Most studies focus on the neurobiological consequences of the abuse, and mainly at an early age. However, there are very few studies that analyze the executive functions of victims of child abuse, while also taking into account the type of abuse suffered. This study aims to identify whether the consequences of child abuse for the executive functions are different for those minors who have been victims of physical abuse and neglect, in comparison with minors with other protective measures. The participants were 44 minors who had suffered child abuse and 24 minors with other protective measures, distinct from abuse. Three neuropsychological tests were used: (a) the Five Digits Test (FDT), (b) the Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome in Children (BADS-C), and (c) the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-V (WISC-V). The results showed difficulties in those minors who had been victim of physical abuse and neglect, in their cognitive flexibility capabilities, inhibitory control, the ability to take decisions, the ability to organize and plan their behavior, control of emotions, and attention control. It was the minors who were victims of physical neglect that showed the greatest difficulties in their executive functions. The results of the study will permit us to design an educational intervention in the residential care centers that can encourage advances in the affected areas through the setting up of different strategies to favor the stimulation, reinforcement, and rehabilitation of the executive functions.

Psicópatas versus trastornos de la personalidad: matices clínico-conceptuales y aspectos diferenciales / Psychopaths versus personality disorders: clinical-conceptual nuances and differential aspects

La psicopatía ha sido frecuentemente relacionada con los trastornos de la personalidad, sobre todo con el subtipo antisocial, debido a las características delictivas que, en ocasiones, este implica. A pesar de esta asociación, y sin obviar los matices diferenciales, es importante recordar que los trastornos de la personalidad son diagnósticos clínicos, que vienen amparados por las nosologías psiquiátricas y recogidos en los manuales de trastornos mentales. En este sentido, no se debe entender la psicopatía como un trastorno mental, ni de la personalidad ni de cualquier otra índole psicopatológica. Si bien la psicopatía incorpora algunos rasgos aislados, también característicos de varios trastornos de la personalidad, es necesario establecer con exactitud los perfiles diferenciales entre estos y la psicopatía, ya que hay múltiples matices que podrán ayudar a establecer el diagnóstico diferencial pertinente y a evitar equiparar psicopatía con psicopatologías de la personalidad

Psychopathy has been frequently associated with personality disorders, particularly with the antisocial subtype due to the criminal features that it sometimes entails. Despite this link, and without ignoring the differential nuances, it is important to remember that personality disorders are clinical diagnoses, which are supported by psychiatric nosology and included in manuals of mental disorders. Therefore, psychopathy should not be understood as a mental disorder, neither of personality nor of any other psychopathological nature. Even though psychopathy incorporates some isolated features, also characteristic of several personality disorders, it is necessary to accurately establish the differential profiles between them and psychopathy, since there are multiple nuances that may help to establish the necessary differential diagnosis and to avoid equating psychopathy with personality psychopathologie

Application of a child abuse prevention programme in an educational context / Aplicación de un programa de prevención del maltrato infantil en el contexto educativo

This study analyses the effectiveness of a child abuse prevention programme in an educational context. The proposal for action is based on the use of stories as an instrument of primary prevention. The programme aims to improve a child’s capacity to face potentially threatening situations and was applied in 10 primary schools of Extremadura (Spain) to 317 pupils aged 9 and 10 years old. There were 12 sessions whose aim was for the children to gain an awareness of abuse, identify situations of abuse and learn strategies to face them. This was done through the use of tutorials and by linking the programme to the aims of the pupils’ educational stage. The evaluation of the programme shows that the pupils in the experimental group resolved the situations with increasing skill, confidence and determination; and that they could see more clearly where to look for help in terms of protection measures. The tutors evaluated the programme positively, considering the contents useful for prevention

El estudio analiza la eficacia de un programa de prevención del maltrato infantil en el contexto educativo. La propuesta de actuación parte de la utilización del cuento como instrumento para la prevención primaria. El programa trata de mejorar las capacidades de los niños para enfrentarse a situaciones potencialmente amenazantes. El programa fue aplicado en 10 colegios de Educación Primaria de Extremadura (España), a un conjunto de 317 alumnos de 9 y 10 años. Se estructura en 12 sesiones en las que se trata de que los niños tomen conciencia del maltrato, identifiquen situaciones de abuso y aprendan estrategias de afrontamiento, utilizando para ello la acción tutorial y vinculando el programa a los objetivos de la etapa educativa de los alumnos. La evaluación del programa, demuestra cómo los alumnos del grupo experimental resuelven las situaciones con mayor habilidad, confianza y firmeza, y tienen más claro cuáles son las fuentes de ayuda a las que recurrir como medida de protección. Los tutores valoran positivamente el programa, considerando los contenidos útiles para la prevención

The Psychopathic Intimate Partner Batterer: A Non-Psychopathological Profile / El maltratador psicópata en la pareja: un perfil no psicopatológico

This theoretical study reviews two of the most cited profiles of intimate partner batterers in the scientific literature, paying special attention to the most notable differences between them, as well as to their common criteria. The study also discusses one of the longest standing controversies in various research studies, including the particular overview with respect to Spain: it being the constant yet erroneous reference to the equivalence of psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder. Similarly, special attention is paid to the implications of considering intimate partner batterers as having either a psychopathological or psychopathic profile, while also stressing the specific role played by psychopathy in the intimate partner batterer and, concerning psychopathic intimate partner batterers, such aspects as their specific motives for perpetrating intimate partner violence and the evaluation instruments of this particular profile. Finally, a series of future directives for research concerning psychopathic intimate partner batterers are also pointed out

En este estudio teórico se hace una revisión sobre dos de los perfiles de maltratadores conyugales más citados en la literatura científica, resaltando específicamente las diferencias más notables entre ambos, así como también los criterios en los cuales convergen. Se debate también una de las controversias más prolongadas a través de los diversos estudios de investigación, incluyéndose la concreta panorámica al respecto en España, que es la referente a la constante y errónea equiparación entre psicopatía y trastorno antisocial de la personalidad. Asimismo, se presta especial atención a las implicaciones derivadas de considerar a los maltratadores conyugales bien con un perfil psicopatológico o bien con un perfil psicopático, haciendo especial hincapié en el papel específico que juega la psicopatía en el maltrato conyugal y poniendo de relieve aspectos concernientes a los maltratadores psicópatas tales como sus motivaciones específicas para perpetrar violencia conyugal y los instrumentos de evaluación de este concreto perfil. Finalmente, se señalan una serie de directrices futuras de investigación sobre el perfil del maltratador psicopático

Indicadores de maltrato psicológico asociados a la antigüedad en las relaciones de pareja / Indicators of psychological abuse associated with the length of relationships between couples

La investigación analiza la variable antigüedad de la relación de pareja y la existencia de manifestaciones de maltrato psicológico en estudiantes universitarios/as. Aporta un mayor conocimiento en lo relativo a la relación entre la antigüedad de pareja y la posibilidad de que aparezcan manifestaciones de maltrato psicológico en el seno de la misma; y analiza la presencia de los diferentes componentes que configuran la interacción coactiva (desvalorización, hostilidad, indiferencia, intimidación, imposición de conductas, culpabilización y bondad aparente) en el sistema conyugal. El estudio pone de manifiesto que conforme las relaciones de noviazgo avanzan en el tiempo, existe una mayor propensión al ejercicio de conductas de violencia psicológica reproduciéndose en mayor medida indicadores como trivializaciones, reproches, indiferencia, intimidación, juzgar, criticar, corregir, conductas destructivas, insistencia abusiva y acusaciones. Asimismo, los resultados indican que los jóvenes presentan en función de la antigüedad de la relación conyugal una mayor frecuencia en "conductas destructivas" y "reproches". La investigación se desarrolla en el contexto de la Universidad de Extremadura (España). La muestra se compone de 1.080 estudiantes universitarios/as de entre 17 y 23 años ó más. Los hallazgos ponen de manifiesto la necesidad de documentar y concienciar sobre esta gran desconocida forma de maltrato (AU)

This research analyzes the variable 'length of relationship between couples' and the evidence for psychological abuse in university students, providing further knowledge concerning the possible connection between the length of a relationship and evidence of psychological abuse appearing within it. The presence of the different components that make up coercive interaction in couples (disparagement, hostility, indifference, intimidation, imposition of behavior patterns, blaming and apparent kindness) is also analyzed. The study shows that relationships, as they get longer, have a greater chance of violent psychological conduct becoming evident through such indicators as trivialization, reproaches, indifference, intimidation, judging, criticizing, correcting, destructive behavior, abusive insistence and accusations. Similarly, the results indicate that there is a greater frequency of "destructive behavior" and "reproaches" the longer the relationship of the young people lasts. The research has been carried out in the context of the University of Extremadura (Spain), the sample being made up of 1.080 university students aged between 17 and 23 years or more. The findings show the need to document and raise awareness of this largely unknown form of abuse (AU)

La competencia emocional como recurso inhibidor para la perpetración del maltrato psicológico en la pareja / Emotional competence as a resource to inhibit psychological abuse in couples

Nowadays, violence within couples is the most alarming form of interpersonal violence. It could even be considered a public health problem. Nevertheless, although the magnitude is as serious as the repercussions of the aggression suffered by the victims, there is a general tendency to restrict the focus of attention to the physical aspect of the problem. Thus, the study of psychological abuse is relegated to a secondary plane, ignoring those works that demonstrate the presence of psychological aggression with serious consequences, comparable to or even greater than those of a physical nature, even though the former are more difficult to predict. For this reason, there is little consensus concerning the specific behaviour patterns that make up psychological abuse. Nevertheless, among its most evident characteristics, we can point to such manifestations as insults, criticism, humiliations, disparagement or ridicule, both in public and in private, social and economic isolation, repeated threats to either abandon the relationship or to seek a divorce, threats of abuse towards the victims or their loved ones and those related with harming or destroying the victim's cherished belongings, whether they be objects or animals, which may be psychologically traumatic for the victim. On the other hand, such conduct as manipulating information, affective neglect, denial of violence and putting the blame entirely on the victim can be listed as hidden expressions of psychological abuse in couples. Similarly, several works have established a link between a wide range of psychological and behavioural symptoms connected to psychological violence in couples with numerous aspects of emotional intelligence. On an interpersonal level, conflictive couples seem to respond to communicative registers far removed from emotional intelligence or such partner skills as empathy, self-control and co-operation, thus leading to violent relational dynamics. The current research analyses psychological abuse in couples (disparagement, hostility, indifference, intimidation, imposition of behaviour patterns, blaming and apparent kindness) and its connection with the level of emotional competence (emotiveness, efficacy, rigidity and illusion) shown by the individuals that make up the couple. The research was carried out in the context of the University of Extremadura (Spain). The sample was selected randomly and was made up of 1 080 university students, of whom 332 were male and 748 female, aged in four categories covering the range from 17 to 23 years or more. Following the sample selection, the deans and department directors were informed of the aims of the research, their approval was sought to implement the research instruments and to guarantee the collaboration of the lecturers in the various degree subjects chosen. Then, a joint calendar was established to apply the tests. The surveys were carried out during the academic years 2007/2008 and 2008/2009. The tests were collectively administered in single sessions. Copies of the survey were handed out along with instructions. Volunteers were then told to fill in personal data and the instructions were read out aloud, stressing the importance of answering all the questions without exception. Finally, doubts were answered, taking care not to influence the subjects' replies. The confidentiality of the students' answers was guaranteed by coding each questionnaire with a numerical identification. After the questionnaires were handed in, the students' replies were checked for compliance with the protocols, and on the basis of atypical replies and questions left unanswered. Only two questionnaires were eliminated due to protocol and no atypical answers or unanswered questions were found. The order was exactly the same for all the applications: First of all the Inventory of Constructive Thought (15 to 30 minutes), and secondly the Questionnaire on Psychological Abuse (15 to 20 minutes). The main results of the study, with respect to the indicators of psychological abuse in couples, are as follows: the existence of patterns of psychological violence in the relationships of couples of university students is confirmed. Of the most significant sub-factors of psychological abuse, the most frequently used by these young people were those included in (3) Indifference, while the least commonly used were those included in (7) Apparent Kindness. As for the relationship between psychologically abusive behaviour patterns and emotional competence during pre-marital relationships, there are significant differences. Finally, the presence of significant correlations between most factors and sub-factors of psychological abuse in couples and the different emotional skills is confirmed. To conclude, it can be said that the research provides evidence that the indicators of psychological abuse in couples start to appear during pre-marital relationships. An analysis of the results demonstrates that these subjects put into practice such indicators and/or manifestations as: trivializations, reproaches, lack of empathy or support, judging, criticising, correcting, abusive insistence and accusations. The students from the sample show no marked tendency towards the exercise of any form of psychological violence in particular. Rather, they exhibit a heterogeneous behavioural repertory made up of disparagement, confrontation, lack of interest or affection, coercion, attempts to restrict the victim psychologically or socially, and blaming the victim for the aggressor's own violent response. Also worthy of note are such specific manifestations as: the aggressor's interest in disparaging any behaviour or attitude adopted by the partner, showing serious resistance to listening and sharing the partner's reality, unless to chide them. Similarly, the existence of behaviour patterns can be appreciated through which aggressors implacably and strictly censure their partner for not living up to their own expectations, forcing the situation until they can release their anger and personal tension and thus get their way with the victim. In addition, the presence of indifference can also be appreciated as the commonest expression of psychological violence among young people aged between 17 and 23. This demonstrates a lack of affective involvement that makes empathy, support and respect towards the individuality of the victim impossible. In turn, it promotes behaviour patterns of monopolising by the aggressor, at the same time as it generates problems for establishing effective communicative links within the couple and destroys the principles of mutuality and equality that are at the heart of any relationship. On the other hand, in this pre-marital interaction, there are significant differences and relationships between the considered manifestations of psychological violence. There are certainly such behaviour patterns as disparagement, hostility, lack of affection, coercion, unreasonable demands, blaming and manipulative attitudes present in the relationships of the students studied. There is also the development of such skills as the subject's capacity to face potentially stressful situations ("emotiveness"), to adopt objective, optimistic and functional thought patterns ("efficacy"), to show tolerance when faced with frustration ("rigidity") and to avoid making judgements about reality based on optimism without objective reasons ("illusion"). However, such data are indicative of such revealing results as the existence of a greater tendency towards psychological violence in its different manifestations by those students with more precarious emotional resources, become even more consistent when the many related studies that act as empirical support are reviewed. With this work, we aim to contribute to the scientific analysis of psychological violence in the relationships of couples, as well as in the design of primary prevention programmes focused on the development of emotional education as a key tool for establishing full and healthy relationships between couples.

La violencia contra la pareja constituye, actualmente, la forma más alarmante de violencia interpersonal. Sin embargo, a pesar de la magnitud del fenómeno, existe una tendencia general a restringir el foco de interés a la dimensión física del mismo. De esta forma el estudio del maltrato psicológico es relegado a un segundo plano, ignorando aquellos trabajos que evidencian la presencia de agresiones psicológicas con secuelas de gravedad equiparada o superior a las de naturaleza física, aunque las primeras presenten una mayor dificultad en su detección. Diferentes investigaciones establecen una vinculación entre una amplia gama de síntomas psicológicos y comportamentales consecuentes a la violencia psicológica en la pareja, con varias de las dimensiones de la inteligencia emocional. De esta forma, las parejas con elevadas tasas de conflictividad responsables de la instauración de la dinámica relacional violenta, parecen responder en el plano interpersonal con registros comunicativos alejados de la inteligencia emocional o de competencias como la empatía, el autocontrol y la cooperación hacia sus parejas. En la presente investigación se analiza el maltrato psicológico en las relaciones de pareja (desvalorización, hostilidad, indiferencia, intimidación, imposición de conductas, culpabilización y bondad aparente) y su relación con el nivel de competencias emocionales (emotividad, eficacia, rigidez e ilusión) que presentan los miembros que conforman la misma. Se desarrolló en el contexto de la Universidad de Extremadura (España). La selección de la muestra fue aleatoria y se compuso de 1 080 estudiantes universitarios/as. De ellos, 332 varones y 748 mujeres de edades comprendidas en cuatro categorías que abarcan el intervalo de 17 a 23 años o más. Una vez seleccionada la muestra establecimos un calendario para la aplicación de los instrumentos, conjuntamente con los decanos, directores de centros universitarios y secretarías académicas. La aplicación de los instrumentos se realizó de forma colectiva en una sesión en horario de mañana y tarde, durante los cursos académicos 2007/2008 y 2008/2009. Los resultados del estudio confirman la presencia de patrones de violencia psicológica en las relaciones de pareja de los estudiantes universitarios/as. Destacan como subfactores de maltrato psicológico ejercidos con mayor frecuencia en estos jóvenes los situados en el factor Indiferencia, en oposición a aquellos menos habituales comprendidos en el factor Bondad aparente. En cuanto a la relación entre las conductas psicológicamente abusivas y las competencias emocionales durante el noviazgo, se evidencian diferencias significativas. Finalmente se confirma la presencia de correlaciones significativas en la mayor parte de los factores y subfactores del maltrato psicológico en la pareja y las diferentes competencias emocionales. Los hallazgos del estudio sugieren en términos generales que los indicadores del maltrato psicológico en la pareja comienzan a manifestarse durante las relaciones de noviazgo, concretamente: trivializaciones, reproches, no empatía ni apoyo, juzgar, criticar, corregir, insistencia abusiva, acusaciones, etc. Se aprecia como la manifestación más habitual la falta de implicación afectiva que imposibilita la empatía, el apoyo y el respeto hacia la individualidad de la víctima, promoviendo conductas de monopolio por parte del agresor en la pareja. Asimismo se confirma la existencia de una mayor tendencia al empleo de las diferentes manifestaciones de violencia psicológica por parte de aquellos estudiantes universitarios/as con recursos emocionales más precarios. Datos que adquieren una mayor consistencia conforme revisamos los múltiples estudios que actúan como soporte empírico. En este sentido, el mayor reto es la promoción del análisis científico de la violencia psicológica en las relaciones de noviazgo, así como su orientación al diseño de programas de prevención primaria centrados en el desarrollo de la educación emocional como elemento central para el establecimiento de relaciones de parejas plenas y saludables.

Desarrollo de la violencia psicológica durante el noviazgo en parejas de jóvenes universitarios/as / Development of psychological violence during courtship in college young couples

La investigación analiza el fenómeno del maltrato psicológico y la presencia de los factores asociados al mismo ("desvalorización", "hostilidad", "indiferencia", "intimidación", "imposición de conductas", "culpabilización" y "bondad aparente") en las relaciones de pareja de jóvenes universitarios/as. El artículo tiene como propósito aportar un mayor conocimiento a lo referente a la relación entre la variable edad y el ejercicio de conductas de maltrato psicológico. Participaron 1080 estudiantes de la Universidad de Extremadura (España) con edades comprendidas entre 17 y 23 años. Los resultados indican que el intervalo de edad de 17-18 años es donde se evidencia un mayor número de indicadores de violencia psicológica. Todo parece indicar que exite una elevada relación entre el inicio precoz de la violencia y el carázter severo y crónico de los malos tratos en la edad adulta. Se propone anticiparnos a las situaciones de conflictividad conyugal con las medidas tan importantes como la educación emocional temprana(AU)

The research analyzes the phenomenon of psychological abuse and the presence of the factors associated with it ("impairment", "hostility", "indifference", "intimidation", "imposition of conduct", "guilt" and "apparent goodness") in the relationships of university students. The paper aims to provide a better understanding regarding the relationship between the variable age and exercise behaviors of psychological abuse. 1080 students attended the University of Extremadura (Spain) aged between 17 and 23. The results indicate that the age range of 17-18 years is evidence where a greater number of indicators of psychological violence. It seems that avoids an elevated ratio of early onset of violence and carázter severe and chronic abuse in adulthood. It is proposed to anticipate the marital conflict situations with such important measures as early emotional education(AU)

Competencia pragmática y adaptación psicosocial en niños sujetos a medidas de protección infantil / Pragmatic competence and psychosocial adaptation in children in protective care

The family, as the basic social environment, should attend to the affective and educational needs of the child. The family should be a stable and secure place for people to live together, where the child should receive care, protection, respect and social support. The family provides the environment for the child to develop and for the parents to adjust and readjust their expectations and practices concerning each child and each different circumstance within a continuity and style. The role of the family is not simply to satisfy the basic, fundamental needs, but to facilitate an interaction between the processes of physiological maturing and daily experiences in order to achieve the child's biopsychological plenitude. When the educational style is not the appropriate one, there are likely to be psychological problems in childhood and adolescence. Some experiences the child is exposed to can be the cause of maladjusted reactions. Such maladjusted response may vary according to the intensity of the experience, the meaning it has for the child, the developmental moment in which he/she finds him/herself (the degree of maturity) and the circumstances following the event. The attachment consolidates through the interaction between the child and the people around him/her. When children are exposed to aggression and rejection from their parents or when they are not given the affection and support that they need, they are more likely to develop emotional and behavioural problems. The communicative interaction established between the child and the important adults in his/her environment is essential for language developmental acquisition. Language accompanies us in almost all the activities we participate in. The absence of stimulation in the first years, so frequent in abused children, can result in delays in the acquisition and development of language. A great part of a child's activity in the first years of life is social and communicative. Although the early interaction between parents and children does not generate language understood as syntactical, phonological or semantic rules, it is essential as it provides the child with the necessary instruments to pass on to formal language. In the disorganised form of attachment, the most usual in cases of abuse, that sensitivity towards the child's needs is distorted, so the interaction with the child does not lead to a correct attribution of the intentional and communicative meaning of the child's action. The interaction in the family environment is essential as it reinforces and redirects the spontaneous use the child makes of language, progressively leading her/him to its correct use. The child learns to refer to the same things and in the same way as others do. Yet the use of language implies the consideration of the other as a thinking being, with beliefs and intentions that should be taken into account in order to be able to establish communication and the form it should take. Several papers researching this issue have stressed the effects of child abuse and neglect on language development. This research analyses pragmatic competence and psychosocial adaptation in children in protective care. Most of the studies do not provide data concerning how each individual linguistic component is affected in such children. Important deficiencies in language development are pointed out, but nothing is said in detail about where exactly such difficulties lie. The pragmatic function determines what type of language must be used in a certain context. This underlines the importance of such psycholinguistic skill. The child, beside learning the formal aspects of the language, learns to use them in a social context. The use of language implies something more than the form or the meaning. It also involves our desires, intentions, beliefs, decisions, to plan the action, etc. Our methodological proposal was carried out within the framework of the Child Care Centres in the Region of Extremadura (Spain). The sample is made up of 74 children living in four different Centres. There were 41 boys and 33 girls between the ages of 6 and 18. We feel we should point out, as strength of the research, the fact that the sample analysed represents the total number of children in residential care over the age of 6 at the time of the evaluation. Pragmatics determines what type of language should be used in a particular context. Children, apart from learning the formal aspects of the language, learn to use it in a social context. Thus there is a difference between the literal meaning of a phrase and its intention. It is necessary for the listener to recognise the speaker's intention over and above the literal meaning of what is said. To achieve this, children must be able to adapt the linguistic forms to the communicative act. We must draw attention to such important aspects as intentionality in communication and the context in which the children's language is developed. In a conversation, the children should be able to manage such skills as: taking turns to speak, expressing intention and recognising the intentions of others, attracting the other's attention, offering an appropriate amount of information, replying in an adequate way with relevant information, adopting the speaker's point of view, the capacity to modify their discourse according to the situation, etc. Our research shows that children in protective care have difficulties in knowing how people they are speaking to will react, especially when it comes to adults. They have clear limitations when using language as a resource to adequately demand attention, so that the person whose attention is required actually does so. They are also limited when directly or indirectly demanding action (the adequate formulation of a specific demand or suggestion); when making a request, especially in those situations in which a request has to be made to an important adult or figure of affection, they often have trouble maintaining continuity in discourse, jumping from one subject to another.

La presente investigación analiza la competencia pragmática y su relación con el grado de adaptación personal, social y escolar en niños sujetos a medidas de protección infantil. La interacción comunicativa que se establece entre el niño y los adultos significativos de su entorno es esencial para el aprendizaje del lenguaje. El lenguaje nos acompaña en casi todas las actividades que realizamos. La ausencia de estimulación en los primeros años, tan frecuente en los niños maltratados, puede desembocar en retrasos en la adquisición y desarrollo del lenguaje. Diferentes investigaciones ponen de manifiesto los efectos del maltrato infantil en el desarrollo lingüístico. El estilo comunicativo desempeña un papel determinante en algunas formas de maltrato. Éste es el caso del maltrato y abandono emocional, donde los intercambios afectivos y comunicativos entre el adulto y el niño son muy disfuncionales. La investigación se desarrolla en los Centros de Acogida de Menores de la región de Extremadura (España). La muestra se compone de 74 niños. De ellos, 41 son varones y 33 mujeres, de edades comprendidas entre los seis y los 18 años. La muestra analizada representa el número total de niños en situación de acogimiento residencial, de edades superiores a los seis años. El estudio evidencia que el nivel de dominio pragmático de los niños en situación de acogimiento residencial se encuentra afectado. El dominio de la pragmática implica un uso adecuado de los distintos tipos de enunciados en situaciones comunicativas concretas. Para ello, el niño debe tener la capacidad de comunicarse e interaccionar utilizando el lenguaje para diferentes funciones (pedir información, reclamar la atención del otro, saludar, protestar, etc.). Al analizar los resultados de la investigación, se evidencian dificultades pragmáticas para formular demandas de información específicas; responder cuando el enunciado les resulta demasiado extenso y emplear el lenguaje como recurso para reclamar la atención de forma adecuada, así como en los requerimientos directos e indirectos de acción. Los niños tienen dificultad para ponerse en el lugar del interlocutor, especialmente si se trata de un adulto; para hacer un ruego o petición, sobre todo cuando se trata de los padres u otro adulto; les cuesta mantener una continuidad en el discurso, saltando de un tema a otro; para solicitar más información o aclaraciones sobre algún acontecimiento; escasa habilidad para mostrar desacuerdos ante una figura de autoridad (padres o profesor); y muestran limitaciones para requerir una acción ya sea a través de órdenes o sugerencias. A través de la investigación comprobamos que las dificultades lingüísticas en niños con medidas de protección pueden adoptar formas muy diversas, destacando las dificultades para el uso del lenguaje como medio para dirigir la acción (función autorreguladora). Asimismo, los niños presentan inadaptación personal y social en varios de los factores analizados. Los niños manifiestan desajuste disociativo, pensamientos negativos y mecanismos de huida de la realidad (ensoñación, autoconcepto negativo e infravaloración de sí mismos). En cuanto a la inadaptación escolar, se evidencia falta de motivación, laboriosidad e interés por el aprendizaje, inadaptación escolar externa, indisciplina y aversión al profesor e insatisfacción escolar. Debemos tomar con precaución los resultados, ya que además de la situación de desprotección común a todos estos niños, es preciso tener en cuenta el factor sociocultural. El lenguaje se desarrolla en interacción con el medio social en que vivimos, y hay contextos familiares que ofrecen una mayor riqueza que otros. La pertenencia a familias de bajo nivel cultural puede dificultar el desarrollo lingüístico porque los niños oyen un lenguaje poco correcto y muy concreto. Esperamos que la presente investigación sirva para alentar el estudio de este fenómeno en mayor profundidad. Debemos destacar la complejidad intrínseca de esta medida de protección, en la que entran en juego múltiples factores pertenecientes a diferentes sistemas (familia biológica, niño, centro de acogida y profesionales), siendo extremadamente difícil dilucidar qué factores intervienen de forma significativa en la explicación de la adaptación y el bienestar de los niños acogidos.

Desarrollo lingüístico y adaptación escolar en niños en acogimiento residencial / Linguistic development and school adjustment in children in resi-dential care

La investigación analiza la competencia comunicativa y el grado de adaptación escolar de niños con medidas de protección. Aporta un mayor conocimiento en lo relativo a la relación entre la competencia social y lingüística de los niños; y analiza la presencia de dificultades en los diferentes componentes del lenguaje (morfología, sintaxis, semántica y pragmática). El estudio pone de manifiesto un desarrollo lingüístico por debajo de la edad cronológica de los niños, siendo mayores las dificultades en pragmática y morfología que en sintaxis y semántica. Asimismo, los resultados indican que los niños presentan inadaptación escolar, que se manifiesta en aversión al aprendizaje, indisciplina, baja motivación e interés por el estudio, aversión al profesor e insatisfacción escolar. La investigación se desarrolla en los Centros de Acogida de Menores de Extremadura (España). La muestra se compone de 74 niños de entre 6 y 18 años. Llamamos la atención sobre aspectos tan importantes como la intencionalidad en la comunicación y el contexto en el que se desarrolla el lenguaje de los niños (AU)

The research analyses the communicative competence and the degree of school adjustment of children in care. It provides further knowledge of the relationship between the children's social and linguistic skill and analyses the presence of difficulties in the different components of language (morphology, syntaxis, semantics and pragmatics). The study illustrates that the children's linguistic development is below what is considered to be normal for their chronological age. They have greater difficulties in pragmatics and morphology than in syntaxis and semantics. Like-wise, the results indicate that the children present school maladjustment, which demonstrates in aversion to the learning, indiscipline, low motivation and interest for the study, disgust to the teacher and school discontent. The research was carried out in children's homes in Extremadura (Spain). The sample consists of 74 children between 6 and 18 years of age. We call attention to such important aspects as intentionality in communication and the context in which the children's language is developed (AU)

Inteligencia emocional como alternativa para la prevención del maltrato psicológico en la pareja / Emotional intelligence as alternative for the prevention of the psy-chological abuse in the couple

El artículo destaca la necesidad del empleo de la inteligencia emocional como una alternativa constructiva para la prevención del maltrato psicológico en la pareja. Basándonos en las investigaciones que afirman que habitualmente las manifestaciones de maltrato psicológico en la pareja son previas a las físicas (Follingstad, Rutledge, Berg, Hause y Polek, 1990; Loring, 1994; O´Leary, 1999) y que el impacto en las víctimas es igual o superior al ocasionado por el maltrato fisico (Henning y Klesges, 2003; Marshall, 1992; Sackett y Saunders, 1999; Street y Arias, 2001), destacamos la necesidad de una intervención preventiva primaria. Se trata de que víctimas y agresores rompan con los estereotipos marcados por el género y aprendan a través de la inteligencia emocional a establecer relaciones de pareja basadas en la empatía, el diálogo, la negociación, la cooperación y la resolución de conflictos constructiva. El análisis de las competencias emocionales llevado a cabo a partir del modelo multifactorial de Bar-On (1997) secunda nuestra tesis sobre la importancia de una prevención integral que implique en sus medidas tanto a mujeres como a varones y evite incurrir en la percepción engañosa de considerar la violencia como un problema “patrimonio de mujeres” (Bonino, 2000)(AU)

The article emphasizes the need of the employment of the emotional intelligence as a constructive alternative for the prevention of the psychological abuse in the couple. Basing on the researches that affirm that habitually the manifestations of psychological abuse in the couple are before the physical (Follingstad, Rutledge, Berg, Hause & Polek, 1990; Loring, 1994; O'Leary, 1999) and that the impact in the victims is equal or superior to the caused one for the physical abuse (Henning & Klesges, 2003; Marshall, 1992; Sackett & Saunders, 1999; Street & Arias, 2001), we emphasize the need of a preventive primary intervention. It treats that victims and aggressors break with the stereotypes marked by the genre and learn across the emotional intelligence to establish relations of couple based on the empathy, the dialog, the negotiation, the cooperation and the constructive resolution of conflicts. The analysis of the emotional competitions carried out from the model multifactorial of Baron (1997) helps our thesis on the importance of an integral prevention that involves in his measures both women and males and avoids to incur the deceitful perception of considering the violence to be a problem "women's patrimony" (Bonino, 2000)(AU)

El maltrato psicológico en los modelos teóricos explicativos de la violencia de género / Psychological abuse in the theoretical explanatory models of the gender violence

La mayoría de los estudios en torno a la violencia en la pareja se centran en el maltrato físico. El artículo llama la atención sobre la escasez de estudios en torno al maltrato psicológico en las relaciones de pareja, a pesar de su incidencia. Nos encontramos ante una forma de violencia invisible que quebranta la integridad emocional y afectiva de la víctima, en un proceso continuo y sistemático a fin de producir en ella intimidación, desvalorización, sentimientos de culpa o sufrimiento. Diferentes estudios señalan que en los casos de violencia física en la pareja, las manifestaciones de maltrato psicológico son previas, generando graves secuelas en la salud mental de quien lo padece y un impacto psicológico similar o superior al ocasionado por las agresiones físicas. El artículo analiza los principales modelos teóricos explicativos de la violencia de género, constatando que no todas las teorías explicativas son aplicables al fenómeno del maltrato psicológico en la pareja.